The Mine Life Cycle and the United Nations 2030 Agenda – A Sustainability Analysis

Agenda 2030 and the sustainable development goals have continued the process of giving equal consideration to social, ecological and economic aspects in the planning and implementation of projects of all kinds. The dynamics associated with the increasing world population, globalization and the fight against the climate crisis have taken on an essential role. This brings to bear developments and instruments that cannot be ignored by the raw materials industry, as they are associated with considerable opportunities and risks. In fact, the provision of geo-resources requires an adjustment of operational activities and communication adapted to these new conditions. This paper identifies the fields of action for sustainable mining processes in the mine life cycle and addresses the consequences of the circular economy and the recently passed supply chain law on mining. The narrative for mining that can be derived from this can demonstrate its contribution to the implementation of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). In the authors’ view, these goals can indeed only be realized with mining. However, the extractive sector must actively demonstrate that it is part of the solution. This requires transparent and comprehensive opportunity-risk management, a process based on adapted monitoring data and the involvement of all affected parties and stakeholders. Future mining projects will be significantly influenced by the positioning of the parties involved with regard to transparency, commitment, participation and communication.

Introduction

The 2030 Agenda was adopted by the 193 member states of the United Nations (UN) in 2015 with the aim of initiating fundamental changes for sustainable developments worldwide (1). At the time, Germany’s Environment Minister Barbara Hendricks described the agenda as historic, setting in motion a systematic transformation. Against the backdrop of climate change, the agenda is about combating poverty, global environmental protection, better social standards and climate- and environmentally compatible economic activity.

The World Commission on Environment and Development, also known as Brundtland Commission (2), fundamentally defined sustainable development in 1987. Quote: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs and choose their own lifestyles”. The further prehistory of the 2030 Agenda includes the Rio Conference in 1992 and the Agenda 21 adopted there, as well as the Millennium Summit in 2000, where the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for 2015 were adopted (3). Among other goals, the MDGs aim to improve upon poverty reduction, education, health, ecology and partnerships. These goals are also addressed by the 2030 Agenda and adapted to the globally changing framework conditions.

During the preparation phase of the UN Summit in New York in 2015, a document titled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” was drafted (1). The preamble defines the thematic areas of the Agenda under five headings – the 5 Ps: People – Planet – Prosperity – Peace – Partnership. This clarifies the goal of the Agenda: Pursue sustainable development within the context of peace and partnerships, whilst balancing economic, ecological and social goals.

It is immediately apparent that the five key messages address essential elements of the mine life cycle. The deposit at the center of the mining process is part of our planet. Its use is by people for people and, in this respect, is aimed at mutual well-being. The (at least) temporary interventions of mining in the environment and the burdens for the people affected can only be kept on an orderly course through partnerships and peace. In the broadest sense, this aspect is also strikingly expressed by the well-known phrase “mining is not one man’s business.”

This view is supported by the results of the survey of major international mining companies published by the management consultancy Ernst & Young (EY) (4). According to the survey, the loss of the license to operate has been regarded as the greatest entrepreneurial risk in the last few years. For companies, the license to operate mines has both a legal and a social component. Without the consent of stakeholders – meaning all stakeholders and those affected – it is practically impossible to operate mines. In (5), Parra, Lewis and Ali highlight the importance of mining within primary production and lament that the benefits of mining are often hidden from the end consumer.

In fact, Georg Agricola had already dealt with the social license to operate in his fundamental opus of mining and metallurgy “De re metallica libri” (6). In particular, in the first book, entitled “Arguments for and against this art” he deals with the arguments of the public critical of mining. His analysis of mining-induced damage to the environment and the benefits that mining activities bring to society can be understood as a risk management approach. As a polymath, he has observed, interpreted, and communicated mining, its characteristics, and its impacts. The Research Center of Post-Mining (FZN) at Technische Hochschule Georg Agricola University (THGA) in Bochum/Germany is committed to the tradition of the university’s namesake (7). This applies in particular to the holistic view of mining and its life cycle, which is reflected in the four main research areas of the FZN (Figure 1).

World population growth is expected to increase demand in georesources, and the resource mix will change as a result of technological progress and social processes. In order to enable transparent supply chains and achieve circular value creation, a broad social discussion about the necessity and meaningfulness of mining projects is required. The goal must be to create transparency for the entire mine life cycle and its relevant processes and to create an understanding within the context of comprehensive communication with all relevant stakeholders. At this point, the question arises as to the connection between the use of deposits (georesources) and the concept of sustainability as well as sustainable practice.

Meeting the raw material and energy requirements of the population, manufacturing and industry is not possible without mining and the power industry. This is associated with influences on the environment of the mines and the production facilities that cannot always be limited in space and time. This raises the question whether mining can actually be developed, managed and terminated sustainably. In view of the fundamental definition of the term sustainability, this must probably be answered in the negative.

However, the question formulated above has prompted the authors to find answers and develop arguments. Even with a broad implementation of circular economic processes, mining-derived raw materials to national economies will remain necessary. In this respect, the mining industry must actively engage in the discussion on sustainability. Indeed, the mining sector is intensely involved in the quest to implement the 2030 Agenda. It must be an active participant in the transformation process in order to continuously demonstrate its future viability. This position is also supported by the call for increased transparency in supply chains.

The 2030 Agenda and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The 5 Ps become more concrete through the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (8, 9). In the figures 2 and 3, the 17 goals are assigned to the 5 Ps and shown in full. The content of the 17 SDGs is further described by 169 targets.

Addressing mining through the 17 SDGs

In dealing with georesources, the research work of the FZN is increasingly focused on aligning mining processes with sustainability goals on the basis of substantial scientific findings, such as remains from past extraction of georesources as well as current or planned projects for their use. The German Sustainability Strategy has adopted the 17 global SDGs (8). The core messages, the 5 Ps, are directly related to mine life cycles and to economic issues related to the management of georesources:

• Planet: Georesources are part of our planet. Their sustainable use must be in harmony with limiting climate change. As essential parts of the natural basis of life, georesources must be used carefully with a view to future generations.
• People and Prosperity: Available sustainable georesources need to contribute to creating orderly living conditions for people, reduce global inequality and shape globalization.
• Peace and Partnership: The georesource economy can only be organized sustainably on the basis of global solidarity and appropriate partnerships. Only in this way human rights and peaceful coexistence can be guaranteed.

Against this background, it is evident that mining processes and the sustainable use of geo-resources directly addresses all 17 SDGs. To this end, the individual SDGs are linked to corresponding statements. The 169 sub-goals are also included in this analysis. In a poster of the Geological Society entitled “Geosciences for the future”, the SDGs are clearly assigned to individual disciplines and challenges (10). Figure 4 gives an impression of the information content of the poster.

Linking the 17 SDGs with aspects of the mine life cycle leads to the following discussion points:

SDG 1 No poverty

Provide access to georesources; ensure land and natural resource ownership; organize participation in the economic process; improve the quality of the environment through revitalization; involve stakeholders and local structures in the economic processes of georesource extraction and use; create skilled jobs with good earning potential; reduce public vulnerability to disasters.

SDG 2 Zero hunger

Revitalize former mining areas in a timely manner and make them available for food production; reliably provide fertilizer and water; develop social and economic perspectives for those affected by mining activities; preserve ecosystems.

SDG 3 Good health and well-being

Improve occupational safety in the extraction and processing of georesources; minimize/prevent pollution of the environment; promote the reuse of mining sites; preserve the quality of life of those affected; minimize mining risks; stakeholder participation; create economic prosperity through the mining sector; improve management of health risks; observe the transparency of supply chains.

SDG 4 Quality education

Provide education opportunities for students; create awareness of sustainable processes; expand existing global networks; enter into global research collaborations; participate in the development of global standards (ISO), intensify communication; provide special vocational training, e. g. mine rescue; upgrade skills through education and training of professionals at home and abroad; build know-how for participation in the change process among affected people; qualify for decent employment and decent work; value cultural aspects.

SDG 5 Gender equity

Create transparency and acceptance regarding the role of women in the georesource sector; prepare them for leadership roles; strengthen the position of women in decision-making processes; prevent discrimination; improve right of access to economic resources.

SDG 6 Clean water and sanitation

Follow groundwater and drinking water protection guidelines; manage water as a resource; use geospatial information and environmental and geomonitoring data; deal with mine/groundwater issues; clean groundwater and mine water purification; pollutant analysis and treatment issues; build infrastructure for supply and disposal; increase water use efficiency; protect ecosystems.

SDG 7 Affordable and clean energy

Utilize geothermal energy and hydrogen; reactivate areas for the production of renewable energy; use energy potentials from the production chain of raw materials (mine water and heat, methane, etc.); minimize environmental impact from energy production; secure access to energy services; support local community energy supply; advance the coupling of the electricity, heat generation and mobility sectors.

SDG 8 Decent work and economic growth

Decouple economic growth and environmental impact; create transparent supply chains; end forced and child labor; create processes for sustainable use of georesources; optimize processes in extractive industries; improve job prospects; involve affected people in change processes; improve participation; strengthen labor rights.

SDG 9 Industry, innovation and infrastructure

Invest in science, research and research collaboration; observe reactivation and transition; shape structural transformation; establish innovative post-mining investigation methods; promote growth of start-ups (products, services, etc.); promote qualified laboratories; improve infrastructure reliability; promote local technology development and value creation; minimize CO₂ and CH₄ emissions; promote climate-neutral processes.

SDG 10 Reduce inequalities

Improve market access for products from countries in the global south; create transparency in the context of research collaborations and knowledge transfer; promote social and economic inclusion; improve participation in decision-making in global institutions; create jobs for local people; ensure decent pay and social protection.

SDG 11 Sustainable cities and communities

Create measures for reactivation and transition; conduct environmental- and geomonitoring; optimize management of water resources; monitor microclimate; sustainable georesource management and use; promote circular economy; improve groundwater protection; reduce environmental pollution; minimize ground movements; avoid and regulate mining damage in an orderly manner; make mining legacies reusable in a timely manner; minimize risks to surface safety; create new perspectives in the post-mining phase.

SDG 12 Sustainable consumption and production

Create transparency in supply chains; improve communication; highlight importance of mining raw materials within the circular economy; optimize re-use of tailings and dump materials; plan and organize post-mining phase; organize sustainable management and use of georesources; handle waste materials in an environmentally sound manner; keep social and environmental risks low; plan operating facilities and take into account extreme weather events; carry out raw material processing close to the extraction site; optimize logistics chains; optimize extraction, production and processing from a sustainability perspective; reduce footprint; pursue urban mining; manage decarbonization.

SDG 13 Climate action

Conduct environmental- and geomonitoring; prevent CH₄ leakage through active use for power and heat generation; mitigate extreme weather events through use of mining infrastructure; avoid land degradation; undertake reforestation; keep CO₂ sequestration and underground storage in view; generate CO₂ reduction; initiate processes for climate-neutral resource extraction.

SDG 14 Life below water

Reduce discharge of polluted mine water into receiving waters; provide water treatment measures; sustainable extraction of georesources in the marine environment; conduct environmental- and geomonitoring; protect ecosystems; plan use of submarine deposits (marine mining) with environmental costs in mind; keep an eye on the post-mining phase.

SDG 15 Life on land

Plan reactivation of mining areas with high standards and implement in a timely manner; consider subsequent use of infrastructure; organize stakeholder participation; improve understanding of ecosystems; optimize water management in mining, e. g., in polder areas; counteract soil degradation; preserve biodiversity; reforestation; develop final disposal of highly radioactive waste in a transparent manner.

SDG 16 Peace, justice and strong institutions

Create transparency regarding the provision and use of georesources; strengthen participation; promote skills development; end human exploitation; strengthen communication; promote rule of law; counter corruption; provide access to raw materials and resources.

SDG 17 Partnerships for the goals

Enter into research collaborations; form networks; intensify communication; organize knowledge transfer; improve collaboration in science, innovation and technology development; promote skills development; increase market access; design partnership-based business models; develop quality criteria for organizing partnerships and establish measurable criteria; intensify participation.

The analysis shows a considerable range of options for action regard the opportunities and risks as well as the challenges of the mining life cycle. To develop a narrative for mining, the three fundamental aspects of a sustainable process – ecological, social and economical – will need to be considered. The following section provides a summary of the main points.

Ecology

During the entire life cycle of a mine, i. e. from exploration through the production phase to closure and reclamation, a variety of impacts on soil, water and air can be observed. Methane, a greenhouse gas found in coal and lignite, oil and natural gas, is released. Dumps and industrial tailings ponds take up land and can lead to substance inputs into groundwater and surface water. Surface facilities cause soil sealing. The extraction of georesources in the subsurface or on the surface also interferes with the natural groundwater balance or can lead to permanent alteration of water bodies. These impacts do not end with the cessation of mining, but also influence the post-mining phase to a considerable extent. Among other things, this raises the question of how sustainable processes can be organized in the course of the remediation and restructuring of mining facilities when perpetual tasks are at issue. In this context, the resource water is of particular importance.

An adapted monitoring program in connection with risk management permanently improves the understanding of processes taking place. This also increases the certainty of forecasts and develops knowledge essential for binding, reliable and trustworthy communication with stakeholders, including those affected (11).

Social

Sustainable use of georesources is an important prerequisite for the acceptance of future resource extraction, also in Germany. Transparent communication of the ecological, social and economic impacts, as well as broad public approval, are key prerequisites for the social license to operate, i. e. social acceptance. This also applies to the post-mining phase, since successful structural change is an essential ingredient for acceptance of measures.

Mining processes often exhibit enormous spatiotemporal dynamics that can only be communicated to the public through a holistic approach. In other words, communication must find comprehensible, clear and credible arguments for all aspects of the mine life cycle. This also includes a very early look at issues of transition and reactivation of areas used for mining. Successful structural change can only be achieved with the involvement of all stakeholders and the assessment of the socio-ecological and socio-economic framework conditions.

Economics

The authors are aware of the complexity of mining processes. Central aspects are the location-dependency of deposit sites and the question of legal availability. Forecasts document mining risk regarding the nature and creditworthiness of the deposit and the long-term nature of the life cycle with low certainty. Reference should also be made here to the ultimately almost non-existent flexibility of primary production industry branches. These remarks could be continued at will. It should be noted that the above-mentioned risks need to be adequately hedged. Sociopolitical debates need to discuss whether such risks only apply to economic dimensions or whether there are other incentives to take up mining activities in the future. Does the attempt to locally overcome the Saint Florian principle (nimby-attitude) with regard to raw material projects relevant to society as a whole seem too ambitious? A debate about the necessary preconditions shall be supported by this paper.

Beyond the consideration of the three central aspects, it should be noted that mining processes can only be designed sustainably if the responsible individuals are qualified and educated. In this respect, the proven system of close links between research and teaching must be continued. This also applies to the permanent exchange between practice and science on the basis of existing national and international platforms. These include professional organizations as well as specialist committees and standardization institutions.

As part of the transformation, science is tasked with helping further develop knowledge of the public and to shape the narratives for mining companies. This includes taking up on-the-ground projects and presenting their significance in the context of society as a whole. In the anthology edited by Parra, Lewis and Ali (5), an evidence-based analysis of the linkages between mining and the SDGs is pursued. Through the supporting and inhibiting factors discussed in 17 individual chapters, it aims to advance the general discourse and defuse polarizing positions between policymakers and industry.

From the point of view of corporate practice, one might conclude that the sustainability paradigm has not yet been a great success. This view is the basis of the analysis by Blühdorn et al. (12), in which a team of authors takes a critical look at the status of the transformation process. They criticize the fact that sustainability policy is not empirically concerned with conditions and changes in the environment, but more with the concerns and fears of social actors. The word “hope narrative” is used to express skepticism about its broad effectiveness of transformation. In the opinion of the authors of this paper, this assessment falls short with regard to the use of georesources. The intersection of “sustainability,” “increasing transparency in supply chains,” and the “circular economy” creates considerable opportunities for the raw materials sector that should not remain unexamined.

Supply chain transparency

The Supply Chain Act (Gesetz über die unternehmerischen Sorgfaltspflichten zur Vermeidung von Menschenrechtsverletzungen in Lieferketten – Lieferkettensorgfaltspflichtengesetz – LkSG) – was published on 16th July 2021 (13) and will enter into on 1st January 2023. The aim of the law is to improve the protection of human rights in global supply chains, including the prohibition of child and forced labor (14). The act also specifies the due diligence obligations of companies in Germany. These relate to the entire supply chain, i. e. from raw material to the final product. In this context, the requirements placed on companies are graded in terms of their ability to exert influence.

The adoption of the Supply Chain Act brings about a paradigm shift (15). This is aligned with the demand of NGOs to reform Germany’s raw materials strategy and policy. It is lamented that raw material extraction far too often creates problems that cannot be solved by those affected alone. In this respect, raw material wealth can become a curse. In fact, there are numerous indications that human rights are violated and environmental damage is caused in the raw materials sector (16). These undesirable developments must be countered by greater diligence and transparency along the supply chains. By moving away from voluntary corporate social responsibility and toward binding requirements, due diligence and environmental obligations are being established and regulations enforced. These efforts are supported at the EU level by the Conflict Minerals Regulation, which came into force on 1st January 2021. Importers of tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold are now subject to specific due diligence and verification obligations along the supply chain (17). Reference should also be made here to the European Green Deal, which aims to promote resource-efficient measures and improve the participation of the population and regions (18).

The initiated processes should have an influence on society’s overall perception of the global availability of raw materials. In fact, the general public hardly engages with its own consumption behavior and with questions about the origin of the raw materials in the products it consumes. As in other sectors of primary production, there is considerable alienation of the public regarding the context in which raw materials are extracted and processed. In the discussion about the energy and mobility turnaround, this attitude is particularly evident. Thus, a broad discussion about the availability of the required raw materials has hardly taken place so far. In this context, reference should be made to the work of the German Mining Network, which consists of eight competence centers for mining and raw materials at foreign chambers of commerce in important raw material nations (19), supported by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Protection (BMWi). Among other institutions, the THGA is a member of this network.

Creating transparency should be combined with improved communication efforts. In this way, a better public understanding can be generated for national and global challenges facing the extractive industries. The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) is a transparency initiative currently supported by 56 countries (20). Its objectives are to provide data for processes along the entire value chain of raw materials, to shape the dialogue on the use of revenues from the extractive sector and to contribute to better governance. By transposing the international standards into the national framework, the German government, together with experts from industry and associations, among others, already set the course in 2015 for improving transparency in the domestic mining sector as well (21). In its current contribution on the topic of “raw materials”, the BMWi explicitly highlights the advantages of domestic extraction of raw materials. It is more ecological, safer (occupational health and safety) and more participatory (local jobs) (22). The declared aim of the German government is to bring national mining in line with the 17 SDGs and to align the entire raw materials sector with the circular economy (23). This position is supported by a discussion paper from the raw materials specialist group of Scientists for Future (24). It proposes strengthening domestic mining with regard to critical raw materials and addresses responsible mining and the promotion of the circular economy.

Circular Economy

The concept of the circular economy is based on closed cycles in the development, production, use and disposal of products (25). The entire life cycle of a product, its value creation process and its benefits for consumers are considered. In contrast to the current linear economic model, economic growth in a circular economy is ideally not based on the use of primary raw materials, but still creates room for innovation and economic development. Such an economic system can also be considered sustainable in light of the 17 SDGs. The process of circular value creation and its elements is illustrated by Figure 5.

The importance of the circular concept for mining and the raw materials economy is obvious. However, it is important to note that primary raw materials are also needed within this economic model. The proportion of raw materials produced by mining is likely to vary greatly from product to product. In this respect, the comprehensive description of different life cycle stages of individual products is indispensable. At this point, a variation of the well-known saying, “If you can’t grow it or reuse it, you have to mine it,” fits.

A look at the arguments of the skeptics of the concept of circular value creation reveals several points (27). The example of the raw material sand shows that, among other things, the final product concrete is essentially dependent on a “fresh” aggregate. Also, applicable technical and safety regulations are hardly adapted to the more extensive use of recycled materials whose quality properties are uncertified. A look at the raw material deposit of e-waste shows that concentrations of certain elements are significantly greater in natural deposits. The environmental compatibility argument of the process is often assumed to be inherent in the system, but lacks concrete proof. With regard to Germany as a major exporting nation, it should be noted that the raw materials present in exported goods have left the closed loop and are no longer available to balance circular value creation.

This is also where the question of the so-called rebound effect comes into play. According to this effect, a reduction in manufacturing costs of a product – which would ultimately have to result from circularity – increases consumption. It is therefore also interesting to better understand the wishes and reactions of consumers. There is a risk that the technical view of circular value creation is misaligned with consumer preferences (27).

The strategy of circular value creation must be seen as a consistent response to the new sustainability paradigm. The transformation process associated with this is particularly challenging due to the holistic nature of the circular economy. Thus, fact-based thinking in terms of opportunities and risks, constant observation of the processes taking place, and the creation of transparency through communication with all stakeholders is also crucial for this concept.

Conclusions

A world population of almost 8 bn people and their right to decent living conditions pose enormous challenges for the use of georesources. Dealing with climate change, the energy and mobility transition as well as the digitalization will change the composition and scope of the raw materials mix. The provision of these resources must be guided by the Sustainable Development Goals formulated in the UN Agenda 2030. Otherwise, the alienation of consumers from mining as an essential element of primary production that exists today would be further reinforced. The associated loss of the social license to operate must be effectively countered under all circumstances in the interests of the financing and feasibility of mining projects.

The key for the extractive industry is to actively address the implementation of the 17 SDGs, which cover many aspects of mining. The opportunity-risk potential of mining projects must be managed over the entire life cycle, accompanied by appropriate geomonitoring programs and made transparent through binding communication with stakeholders.

Sustainability is also a key part of supply chain transparency for a wide variety of raw materials and products, as well as in the design of processes for circular value creation. Companies and institutions involved in the provision of georesources will have to become involved in these developments. This requires a narrative for mining that convincingly expresses its active efforts toward sustainability, transparency and communication. In the future, corporate responsibility will include a broader group of stakeholders in addition to shareholders. Mining could thus assume the role of a provider of raw materials that the world can count on to tackle global challenges.